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The ciliary muscles of the eye are only innervated by the parasympathetic division. This explains the accommodation reflex when a person is resting and digesting.
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Cholinergic fibers release acetylcholine which then acts on nicotinic or muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptor activation results in synaptic transmission, while muscarinic receptor activation results in either stimulatory or inhibitory roles depending on which α-subunits are bound to the GPCR complex.
Adrenergic fibers release epinephrine or norepinephrine, which then act on α or β adrenoceptors: α1 adrenoceptor activation results in muscle contraction; α2 adrenoceptor activation results in the inhibition of smooth muscle relaxation; and β adrenoceptor activation results in muscle relaxation.
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Arterial baroreceptors sense changes in arterial blood pressure and relay this information to the brain. This initiates a reflex response that acts to restore arterial blood pressure.
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Blood vessels that dilate enhance blood flow to the heart, skeletal muscles and liver (which produces glucose for muscle contraction).
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Nicotinic receptor in the activated state.
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What is the effect of acetylcholine binding to nicotinic receptors?
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Reflect on what you've found new or challenging in this lesson on Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System. Refer to the learning objectives to see if you feel competent with this topic.
Shown below are your answers to the questions at the beginning of the lesson.
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Adrenal medulla cells synthesize epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream by chromaffin cells (postganglionic sympathetic neurons that lack axons).
2. Epinephrine binds to the β1-adrenergic receptors (largely on the heart) or β2-adrenergic receptors (on smooth muscle cells). The αs subunit then unbinds guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and bind guanosine triphosphate (GTP).
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• Sympathetic stimulation causes the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine (the "adrenaline rush").
• Sweat glands increase secretion of sweat, so we sweat when we are stressed.
• Arrector pili muscles contract causing the hair to stand on end. Subsequently, our skin and scalp “prickles” with fear.
• Our kidneys start secreting renin which regulates blood pressure.
• Sympathetic stimulation leads to vasoconstriction which increases blood pressure. Our blood pressure increases when we get excited.
A variety of substances have been suggested as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators in the ENS. Many of these are also neurotransmitters in the CNS. These include a variety of chemicals: acetylcholine, norepinephrine, many peptides, and also nitric oxide (NO).
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NO is a nonpolar gas, so it can diffuse rapidly through cells and across cell membranes. In the cytoplasm it binds to and activates the enzyme guanylate cyclase. This initiates the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and associated signaling events.
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The questions above are based on these learning objectives. When you see this symbol [+] select it for supplementary questions.
The depolarized postganglionic neurons release different neurotransmitters.
Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons always release ACh, which binds to muscarinic receptors on effector cells. These neurons are said to be "cholinergic".
Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine, which binds to adrenergic receptors (adrenoceptors) on effector cells. These neurons are said to be "adrenergic". Postganglionic neurons in sweat glands release ACh, which binds to muscarinic receptors on effector cells.
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The neurons of the parasympathetic division originate from the brainstem and sacral region of the spinal cord. The ganglia are located near or on the effector organ, so the preganglionic neurons are relative long and the postganglionic neurons are relatively short.
The preganglionic neurons of both autonomic divisons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine, and the parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release acetylcholine.
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When the ciliary body muscle fibers (innervated by the parasympathetic system) contract, the tension on the lens suspensory ligament is relieved and the lens bulges. This improves near vision for "rest-and-digest" activities.
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[2] Medina, J. (2014). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home and school. Seattle: Pear press.
[3] McGuire, S. Y., McGuire, S., & Angelo, T. A. (2015). Teach students how to learn: strategies you can incorporate into any course to improve student metacognition, study skills, and motivation. Sterling: Stylus Publishing.
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Nicotinic receptors also respond to nicotine.
Muscarinic receptors also respond to muscarine, a toxic alkaloid found in mushrooms.
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